Category: UPSC Preliminary

United-Nations-Framework-Convention-on-Climate-Change-UNFCCC Introduction The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an essential global agreement focused on addressing climate change through international cooperation. Established under the United Nations, it was first introduced during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and signed in New York the same year. Today, it includes 198 member countries, referred to as "Parties" (as of November 2024) who have collectively committed to stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and limiting their impact on the Earth’s climate. Objectives and Role of the UNFCCC The main goal of the UNFCCC is to stabilize GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at levels that prevent severe climate-related consequences. While it doesn’t impose mandatory emission reduction targets on individual countries, it provides a structure for negotiating additional, more targeted treaties (referred to as "protocols") that aim to impose binding limits on emissions. The treaty is legally non-binding, which means it encourages rather than enforces compliance. This approach reflects the challenge of bringing nearly 200 countries together in agreement on climate measures, allowing room for flexibility while promoting collaborative action. The Role of COP (Conference of the Parties) within the UNFCCC The Conference of the Parties (COP):— The Conference of the Parties, commonly referred to as COP, serves as the primary decision-making authority of the UNFCCC. As defined in Article 7.2 of the UNFCCC, it is the Convention’s supreme decision-making body. All parties (member states) of the convention are represented at COP meetings, where they collectively review and evaluate progress toward achieving the UNFCCC’s goals. COP is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the UNFCCC and any related protocols, as well as addressing emerging issues, making institutional and administrative decisions, and setting priorities for future actions. The COP President and Bureau:— The presidency of the COP rotates among five UN regional groups*, with the COP President typically being the environment minister of the host country. Elected at the beginning of each COP session, the President’s role is to guide negotiations and foster agreements among parties. Additionally, a COP Bureau, elected to support the work of the COP, provides continuity between sessions. This Bureau assists in organizing the work of COP sessions and the activities of its subsidiary bodies. Timeline of Major Climate Milestones 1979:— First World Climate Conference (WCC) held 1988:— Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) established 1990:— IPCC and the second WCC recommend a global climate treaty; UN General Assembly begins treaty negotiations in December 1992:— UNFCCC text adopted at the UN Headquarters in New York 1994:— UNFCCC officially enters into force 1995:— First COP held in Berlin, Germany 1996:— UNFCCC secretariat moves from Geneva to Bonn, Germany, supporting the city’s development as an international sustainability hub and UN host Functions of the COP One of the COP's primary responsibilities is to review national reports and emission inventories submitted by member countries. These documents provide data on countries' emissions and the measures they are taking to reduce them. By analyzing these submissions, COP assesses the effectiveness of the actions taken and the progress made toward the UNFCCC’s ultimate goal of stabilizing atmospheric GHG levels. In addition to setting climate action guidelines, COP meetings allow parties to exchange ideas, debate policies, and create strategies tailored to evolving climate challenges. These meetings offer an essential platform for building consensus, sharing technological advancements, and encouraging countries to adopt effective climate policies. Structure and Rotation of COP Meetings The COP gathers every year unless member countries decide otherwise. The first meeting, COP1, was held in Berlin, Germany, in March 1995, setting a precedent for annual gatherings. The meetings typically take place in Bonn, Germany—the location of the UNFCCC secretariat—unless a member country volunteers to host. The presidency of COP rotates among the *five UN-recognized regional groups:— (1) Africa, (2) Asia-Pacific, (3) Latin America and the Caribbean, (4) Central and Eastern Europe, and (5) Western Europe and Others. This rotation aims to ensure a balanced representation across different regions, fostering inclusivity in the leadership and hosting responsibilities. Landmark Agreements of COP Conferences COP meetings have led to significant achievements, including the creation of notable climate treaties:— Kyoto Protocol (1997):— At COP3, held in Kyoto, Japan, parties negotiated the Kyoto Protocol, which introduced legally binding targets for developed nations to reduce GHG emissions. This treaty marked the first time specific targets were set for emissions reductions. Paris Agreement (2015):— COP21 in Paris, France, resulted in the groundbreaking Paris Agreement. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which only imposed targets on developed nations, the Paris Agreement is a universal treaty where all countries—developed and developing alike—pledge to work toward limiting global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, aiming for 1.5 degrees. The Importance of Annual COP Meetings The annual COP meetings are crucial because they ensure continuous global attention to climate change issues. These gatherings provide a structured framework for countries to present updates on their climate actions, introduce new targets, and strengthen global commitments. The consistent momentum generated by COP helps keep climate change at the forefront of international policy discussions, encouraging countries to maintain and enhance their climate efforts. Key areas of focus include:— Reducing carbon emissions. Transitioning to clean and sustainable energy sources. Enhancing the resilience and adaptability of countries facing escalating climate impacts. These conferences are instrumental in uniting governments globally, while also engaging businesses, civil society, and individuals to take active roles in addressing the climate crisis. By hosting these annual COPs, the UNFCCC continues to create platforms for all stakeholders to advance global climate action, establishing both binding and voluntary frameworks for reducing GHG emissions and preparing for climate challenges. COPYearPlaceKey Outcomes and HighlightsCOP 11995Berlin, GermanyBerlin Mandate - Recognized the need for stronger commitments from developed countries to reduce greenhouse gases. Established a mandate to negotiate binding targets, laying the groundwork for future agreements.● To facilitate focused negotiations, COP 1 formed two temporary (ad hoc) groups to address specific climate-related topics.COP 21996Geneva, SwitzerlandIn August 1996, the UNFCCC secretariat moved from Geneva to Bonn, Germany. This relocation marked a significant shift, establishing Bonn as an emerging center for international sustainability.● Reaffirmed scientific findings on climate change and acknowledged the growing need for climate action. Countries discussed mechanisms for reducing emissions, preparing for the Kyoto Protocol negotiations.COP 31997Kyoto, JapanKyoto Protocol - Concluded and set legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries. ● Established emissions trading, joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism to assist countries in achieving their targets.● Common Responsibilities:— Every nation has a shared obligation to address climate change.● Differentiated Responsibilities:— Historically significant emitters (developed countries) are required to take greater responsibility and commit to stricter emission targets, while developing countries can engage voluntarily without mandatory reductions. The Kyoto Protocol identified specific gases to target for emissions reduction:(1) Carbon dioxide (CO₂)(2) Methane (CH₄)(3) Nitrous oxide (N₂O)(4) Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆)(5) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)(6) Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)COP 41998Buenos Aires, ArgentinaBuenos Aires Plan of Action - ● It took place from 2-13 November 1998 in Buenos Aires, Argentina.● Focused on implementation mechanisms for the Kyoto Protocol, initiating work on compliance, adaptation funding, and technology transfer.COP 51999Bonn, GermanyAdoption of Draft Decisions and Conclusions: COP-5 concluded with the adoption of 32 draft decisions covering various aspects of climate policy and FCCC provisions. Key areas of focus included:—● Reviewing the Implementation of FCCC Commitments:— Evaluated progress on existing commitments and set new goals for Parties.● Preparing for COP/MOP-1:— Established preparations for the first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP-1), which would be essential for the Protocol’s future enforcement.COP 6 (Part 1)2000The Hague, NetherlandsThe Hague AgreementWorking Groups and Key Issues:— During the first week, delegates engaged in informal contact groups and negotiating sessions led by UNFCCC subsidiary bodies, focusing on:Technology Transfer and Capacity Building:— Discussions centered on supporting developing countries and economies in transition to adopt technology and practices that mitigate climate change.Adverse Effects and Response Measures:— Addressing how climate change and adaptation measures impact developing nations.Domestic Policies and Measures for GHG Reduction:— Examining best practices in policies to lower emissions.Kyoto Mechanisms:— Refining the rules for carbon trading, joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to facilitate international cooperation.Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF):— Discussions on carbon sequestration, deforestation, and reforestation, which have significant impacts on GHG levels.Compliance System for the Protocol:— Developing guidelines and enforcement mechanisms to ensure countries adhere to emission reduction targets.COP 6 (Part 2)2001Bonn, GermanyBonn Agreements - Finalized negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol's implementation, including carbon sink accounting, compliance rules, and financial support for developing countries. In an effort to streamline discussions and reach consensus, COP-6 President Jan Pronk grouped key political and technical issues into four "clusters":Cluster A - Capacity Building, Technology Transfer, and Global Environment Facility (GEF): Aimed at ensuring developing nations receive adequate resources, technology, and support to combat climate change.Cluster B - Kyoto Mechanisms: Focused on refining mechanisms like emissions trading, joint implementation, and CDM.Cluster C - Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF): Addressed complex issues related to carbon sequestration, deforestation, and reforestation.Cluster D - Compliance, Policies and Measures, and Reporting: Targeted accountability through compliance measures, policy harmonization, and reporting requirements under Articles 5, 7, and 8 of the Kyoto Protocol.COP 72001Marrakech, MoroccoMarrakech Accords - Finalized operational details for the Kyoto Protocol, including compliance mechanisms and the funding mechanism. Established a stronger framework for adaptation and capacity-building efforts for developing nations.1. Finalization of the Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA)● Background: The Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), initiated at COP-4 in 1998, outlined a roadmap for strengthening the implementation of the UNFCCC and preparing for the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol.● Achievement at COP-7: COP-7 finalized the BAPA, paving the way for countries to formally ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The finalization of BAPA represented a critical step in establishing binding international commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.2. Adoption of the Marrakech AccordsThe Marrakech Accords were a set of agreements that provided detailed operational rules and mechanisms for implementing the Kyoto Protocol. These accords included several crucial decisions:COP 82002New Delhi, IndiaDelhi Declaration - Divisions and Points of ContentionDrafting the Declaration:— One of COP-8’s primary outcomes was the creation of the "Delhi Declaration," a document meant to guide the next steps in climate action. However, delegates were divided over its content, especially regarding the mention of the Kyoto Protocol.Omission of the Kyoto Protocol in Draft Text:— The current draft of the Delhi Declaration did not reference the Kyoto Protocol explicitly, leading to differing views among participants. Some parties wanted stronger references to the Protocol, while others focused on broader climate goals that did not emphasize Kyoto commitments.COP 92003Milan, ItalyEmphasized adaptation and capacity-building, with progress on funding mechanisms for climate resilience.Main Issues Addressed at COP-91. Afforestation and Reforestation in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)● Forest-related Decisions:— COP-9 earned the nickname "forest COP" due to its emphasis on forest-related activities. It approved the inclusion of afforestation and reforestation activities under the CDM, a mechanism enabling developed countries to earn carbon credits through emissions reduction projects in developing countries.● Definitions and Modalities:— COP-9 provided specific definitions and rules for implementing these forestry projects, ensuring they align with the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol and contribute meaningfully to carbon sequestration.2. Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) Guidelines● Good Practice Guidance:— The conference adopted new guidelines for managing LULUCF activities, which focus on how land and forests can either contribute to or mitigate climate change.● Importance of Carbon Sinks:— By establishing good practices for LULUCF, COP-9 acknowledged the role of forests and other land areas as "carbon sinks," which absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to offset emissions.3. Funding Mechanisms: SCCF and LDC Fund● Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF):— COP-9 discussed the operational details of the SCCF, designed to provide financial support for adaptation, technology transfer, and capacity-building initiatives, particularly in developing countries.● Least Developed Countries (LDC) Fund:— The conference also addressed the LDC Fund, aimed at helping the world’s most vulnerable nations tackle climate-related challenges, including adaptation projects and enhancing resilience to climate impacts.COP 102004Buenos Aires, ArgentinaReviewed the effectiveness of climate actions and emphasized the need for adaptation, particularly for developing countries. Key Topics and Decisions at COP-10During the meetings, Parties negotiated and adopted decisions on several crucial issues, reinforcing the UNFCCC’s role in addressing climate change.● Technology TransferPurpose:— Ensuring developing countries access the technologies necessary for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts.Outcome:— Decisions were adopted to improve technology transfer processes, fostering better cooperation between developed and developing nations.● Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF)Focus:— LULUCF policies can either contribute to or mitigate climate change, depending on how land is managed. Discussions focused on regulating and accounting for emissions from forestry and land-use changes.Result:— Guidelines were updated to manage emissions and promote sustainable forestry practices, which are critical for countries with large forest areas.● Financial Mechanism and National Communications from Annex I PartiesFinancial Mechanism:— The financial mechanism of the UNFCCC provides resources to developing countries for climate-related initiatives.National Communications:— Annex I countries (industrialized nations) are required to submit regular reports on their greenhouse gas emissions and climate policies. Discussions at COP-10 focused on the structure and frequency of these reports to ensure transparency.● Capacity BuildingObjective:— Strengthening the abilities of developing countries to address climate change, particularly regarding technical knowledge and institutional infrastructure.Decisions:— Enhanced support was promised to help these countries build robust frameworks for both mitigation and adaptation efforts.● Adverse Effects, Adaptation, and EducationAdaptation:— Recognition of the growing need for adaptation strategies in response to climate impacts led to a focus on education and awareness-building.UNFCCC Article 6:— Addressing education, training, and public awareness, the Article was revisited to underscore the importance of public understanding and participation in climate policies.COP 11/CMP 12005Montreal, Canada● Kyoto Protocol enters into force in 2005 - Created mechanisms for reviewing implementation, first meeting of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP). Launched discussions on the next commitment period under Kyoto.● COP 11 established a “Dialogue” for sharing experiences and examining strategies for long-term, cooperative climate action.COP 12/CMP 22006Nairobi, KenyaNairobi Work Programme - Focused on impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Strengthened the support framework for adaptation measures in developing nations.COP 13/CMP 32007Bali, IndonesiaBali Meet: Bali Road Map - Established a two-year negotiation process for a post-2012 climate framework, including mitigation, adaptation, and technology transfer under the "Bali Action Plan."● Governments adopted the Bali Road Map, a significant step for future agreements on climate action.● Focused on reviewing mechanisms for financing climate initiatives, including technology transfer and adaptation.COP 14/CMP 42008Poznan, PolandPoznan Summit:Reviewed the progress of the Bali Road Map and discussed financial and technical support for developing countries to help them with climate challenges.● Launched the Adaptation Fund to finance climate projects, funded by 2% of the Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).● Fund managed by the Adaptation Fund Board (AFB), with secretariat support from Global Environment Facility (GEF); World Bank served as interim trustee.COP 15/CMP 52009Copenhagen, DenmarkCopenhagen Accord - Acknowledged the need to limit global temperature rise below 2°C. Established a framework for developed countries pledged $30 billion for 2010-2012 and committed to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 to assist developing countries with mitigation and adaptation.● Could not achieve a legally binding agreement due to disagreements between developed and developing countries.● Copenhagen Accord recognized, a five-nation accord between the US and BASIC countries (India, China, Brazil, South Africa).COP 16/CMP 62010Cancun, MexicoCancun Agreements - Created the Green Climate Fund (GCF), established REDD+ (for reducing deforestation), and strengthened adaptation measures. Emphasized a commitment to limit warming to 2°C.● Established the Green Climate Fund (GCF), based in South Korea, as the centerpiece to mobilize $100 billion for climate finance by 2020.● Launched the Technology Mechanism to support technology development and transfer for climate adaptation and mitigation.● World Bank appointed interim trustee of GCF.COP 17/CMP 72011Durban, South AfricaDurban Platform - Approved the Governing Instrument for the Green Climate Fund (GCF), setting guidelines for its operation and governance.COP 18/CMP 82012Doha, QatarDoha Amendment - Extended the Kyoto Protocol with a second commitment period (2013–2020). Further discussed long-term climate funding and pre-2020 ambitions.● Agreed to work towards a new Global Climate Change Agreement to succeed the Kyoto Protocol.● Extended the Kyoto Protocol.● Decided that UNEP-led consortium would host the Climate Technology Centre (CTC), implementing the UNFCCC Technology Mechanism.COP 19/CMP 92013Warsaw, PolandWarsaw International Mechanism ● Introduced Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC), setting the stage for Paris Agreement commitments.● Focused on closing the “pre-2020 ambition gap”—the gap between existing pledges and what is required to keep temperature rise under 2°C.COP 20/CMP 102014Lima, PeruLima Call for Climate Action ● Outlined National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) to support developing countries in climate adaptation.● Launched the NAZCA Climate Action Portal with UNFCCC support.● Introduced the Lima Work Programme on Gender to advance gender balance in climate policies.● Organized UNFCCC NAMA Day, focused on Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions.COP 21/CMP 112015Paris, FranceParis Agreement 2015:● Paris Agreement:— Adopted as a replacement for the Kyoto Protocol. It entered into force in 2016 with ratification from 55 countries accounting for 55% of global emissions. Nearly 200 countries committed to joint efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions, aiming to restrict global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels. Nations agreed on a five-year cycle of revising climate goals (Global Stocktake) and reporting progress through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) with transparency and accountability ensured by the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF).● India ratified in 2016. ● Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs):— INDCs became Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Countries submitted their climate action plans (NDCs), to be updated every 5 years.● Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF):— Countries will report progress starting in 2024, allowing global stocktakes to assess collective progress on climate goals.● Long-Term Strategies (LTLEDS):— These voluntary strategies offer a long-term vision beyond the NDCs.● Developed countries committed to mobilize $100 billion/year in climate finance by 2020.COP 22/CMP 12/CMA 12016Marrakech, MoroccoMarrakech Summit:● Marrakech Action Proclamation:— Focused on finance and technology transfer to support the Paris Agreement implementation.● Finance Discontent:— Disputes over the pledged $100 billion/year for developing nations; developing countries criticized the accounting methods of developed countries.● Adaptation Fund Extension:— Adaptation Fund continued with new conditions, yet concerns remained about its longevity under the Paris Agreement.● Called the “Action COP” or “Agricultural COP.” Launched Adaptation of African Agriculture (AAA) initiative.● Reviewed “Orphan Issues” from the Paris Agreement that were unassigned.● Directed an early stocktake through Facilitative Dialogue.● Nations submitted Mid-Century Strategies; launched 2050 Pathway Platform to help develop mid-century climate strategies.COP 23/CMP 13/CMA 1-22017Bonn, GermanyFiji Momentum for Implementation - Hosted by Fiji in Bonn, focused on the "Talanoa Dialogue" to enhance global climate ambition and finalize Paris Agreement implementation guidelines. Fiji became the first small-island state to chair the UNFCCC climate talks.● Talanoa Dialogue:— Fiji-led discussions emphasized inclusive climate progress assessment. Alliances to phase out coal emerged, while agriculture emissions, green building practices, and gender-sensitive approaches were spotlighted. Developing nations urged the focus on "pre-2020" commitments, reminding developed countries to fulfill pledges made under the Kyoto Protocol.● New Alliances:— Launched Powering Past Coal Alliance and InsuResilience Global Partnership to protect vulnerable nations against disasters. ● Gender and Indigenous Rights:— Launched Gender Action Plan emphasizing women’s role in climate action, *Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples’ Platform (LCIPP), *Ocean Pathway Partnership acknowledging ocean-climate links, and Talanoa Dialogue for NDC enhancement by 2020.COP 24/CMP 14/CMA 1-32018Katowice, Poland● Katowice Climate Package:— Agreed on the Work Programme for Implementation (rulebook) to operationalize the Paris Agreement, effective from 2020, detailing guidelines on transparency, finance, and NDC reporting. The rulebook defined the reporting process, emission tracking methods, and climate finance frameworks.● Finance and Progress Reports:— The rulebook reinforced reporting for developing nations to support their climate goals. However, unresolved issues like voluntary market mechanisms were deferred to later COPs. These measures, though essential for transparency and global accountability, faced some criticism, especially on unresolved market mechanisms and limited recognition of the IPCC report on 1.5°C impacts.COP 25/CMP 15/CMA 22019Madrid, Spain (under Chile’s presidency)● Focus on 'Carbon Markets':— Continued work on Paris Agreement implementation, particularly on market mechanisms under Article 6. However, talks stalled on issues related to international carbon markets and finance mechanisms for developing countries. While the outcome was termed as lacking significant progress, many discussions were postponed to COP 26.● Developing Nations' Concerns:— Frustration over inadequate commitments from developed nations, especially concerning compensation and international cooperation.● Referred to as “Blue COP” due to focus on ocean preservation.● Declared climate crisis as an “emergency”; UK and Ireland declared national climate emergencies.● Established Santiago Network to support vulnerable nations with technical assistance.COP 26/CMP 16/CMA 32021Glasgow, UK● Glasgow Climate Pact:— Over 120 global leaders committed to deeper emissions cuts, resilience building, and increased climate finance, and finalized Article 6 on carbon markets. This pact reinforced the need to phase down coal and ensure financial support for adaptation. The commitment to keeping global warming within 1.5°C was reiterated, with all nations urged to set more ambitious climate goals before 2030.● Resilience Building:— Enhanced efforts to strengthen climate resilience and adaptation.COP 27/CMP 17/CMA 42022Sharm El Sheikh, EgyptSharm El Sheikh Implementation Plan: Established a historic "Loss and Damage" fund to assist vulnerable nations. Renewed adaptation, resilience, and energy transition efforts.● Loss and Damage Fund:— Established to support vulnerable countries impacted by climate change.● Implementation Plan:— Shifted focus from pledges to actionable outcomes, emphasizing accountability for climate action from businesses and institutions. A historic agreement to create a dedicated fund to help vulnerable countries cope with climate-induced losses. The Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan stressed accountability for institutions and businesses and emphasized that global temperature rise should not exceed 1.5°C. The focus was on moving from commitments to tangible action.COP 28/CMP 18/CMA 52023Dubai, UAE● Global Stocktake of Paris Agreement:— In a landmark moment, nearly 200 nations agreed to intensify climate action under the Paris Agreement, as part of the first "global stocktake," aimed at reducing fossil fuel reliance and expediting the shift to cleaner energy. This conference underscored the need for a just, equitable transition, with stronger goals to keep temperature rise within the 1.5°C target.● Fossil Fuel Transition:— Laid the groundwork for a just, equitable energy transition, promoting emission reductions and financial scaling.COP 29/CMP 19/CMA 62024Baku, Azerbaijan● Projected Topics - Continued focus on implementing and scaling commitments under the Paris Agreement, along with adaptation, climate finance, and cooperation among regional blocs. Expected to address progress on loss and damage and resilience-building.● Finance Focus:— Expected emphasis on mobilizing trillions needed for climate actions, with countries presenting updated NDCs and financial commitments under the Paris Agreement.● Investment in Sustainable Goals:— Anticipated to reinforce investment in Sustainable Development Goals alongside climate commitments. The regularity of these meetings also allows the UNFCCC to adapt its strategies to new scientific insights, technological advancements, and the changing global landscape. For example, recent COP meetings have emphasized climate finance, adaptation, and technology transfer to assist vulnerable nations in dealing with climate change effects. Shortcomings of UNFCCC (1) Limited Focus on Air Pollutants:— Although climate change discussions center around greenhouse gases like CO₂, scientists argue that other harmful air pollutants, especially fine particulates from cars and power plants, are not addressed in key protocols like the Kyoto Protocol. These pollutants contribute significantly to health risks, affecting air quality and human health, but receive less attention in UNFCCC actions. (2) Slow Progress and Limited Participation:— It took several years for countries to fully support the Kyoto Protocol. Russia only joined in 2005, which delayed the protocol’s impact. Furthermore, the UNFCCC was unable to persuade the United States—one of the world’s largest emitters of greenhouse gases—to join, limiting the protocol's reach and impact in addressing emissions on a global scale. (3) Insufficient Emissions Targets:— While countries pledged reductions under the Paris Agreement, recent assessments show that the current contributions are inadequate to keep global warming below 2°C. The world is already nearing a 1°C increase since pre-industrial times, and many experts believe that the current pledges will fall short, possibly resulting in even higher temperature increases. (4) Response Gap on Vulnerability:— Many vulnerable nations, especially small island nations, have called for more ambitious targets, such as limiting warming to 1.5°C. These countries face immediate threats from rising sea levels, but the broader global climate agreements have largely focused on a 2°C limit, which may not be sufficient to prevent severe impacts for these regions. (5) Funding Challenges:— The Paris Agreement includes a commitment from wealthy nations to contribute $100 billion annually to support climate action in developing countries. However, many countries, particularly small island nations, argue that this amount is insufficient given the escalating costs of climate impacts. There are also concerns over the lack of clarity on funding commitments beyond 2020. (6) Non-Binding Agreement and Withdrawal Issues:— Unlike earlier climate agreements, the Paris Agreement relies on voluntary commitments from countries. This flexibility led to challenges when the United States withdrew, halting its financial commitments to the Green Climate Fund and creating a funding gap. This action put additional pressure on other nations to achieve targets and left less funding for global climate initiatives. (6) Weak Enforcement Mechanisms:— The Paris Agreement lacks strict enforcement mechanisms. Countries are responsible for setting, implementing, and reporting their own climate goals, with no direct penalties for non-compliance. Instead, the “name and shame” system is intended to encourage adherence by publicly highlighting lagging efforts. However, this approach may not be enough to ensure strong and consistent global progress. Achievements of UNFCCC Inclusive Global Framework with the Paris Agreement: The Kyoto Protocol only required emission reductions from developed countries, which was a point of contention among developing nations. This was resolved with the Paris Agreement, which introduced a more inclusive approach, requiring all countries to commit to climate action while allowing them to set their own targets according to their capabilities. Increased Public Awareness: UNFCCC initiatives have raised global awareness about climate change, sparking a much broader understanding of climate science compared to the 1990s. This awareness has grown alongside scientific advancements, and the UNFCCC’s advocacy has helped promote public understanding and support for climate action. Strengthened Climate Science: Over the last two decades, climate science has become more advanced, partly due to the research and data encouraged by the UNFCCC. This stronger scientific basis has led to clearer projections of climate impacts, such as the likelihood of extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and other climate-related changes, improving global planning for climate resilience. Support for Adaptation and Resilience Initiatives: The UNFCCC has supported concrete adaptation measures, including the National Adaptations Programme of Action (NAPAs) and the Nairobi Work Programme. These initiatives help countries build resilience against climate impacts, guiding national adaptation policies and actions, particularly in vulnerable regions. Innovation in Climate Mitigation (CDM): The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol allows developing countries to earn credits for emission-reduction projects, which can be sold to nations with mandatory emission reduction commitments. This mechanism incentivizes cleaner development pathways and provides a market-based approach to reducing global emissions. Increased Cooperation on Technology Development and Transfer: Since its establishment, the UNFCCC has facilitated technology transfer and development, encouraging collaboration between countries. This support has been crucial in providing developing nations access to technology and resources needed to implement effective climate action strategies. Platform for Financial and Technical Support: UNFCCC efforts have established platforms for financing and technology transfers, enabling developing countries to access funds, share knowledge, and foster partnerships. Through mechanisms like the Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Fund, UNFCCC provides resources to help vulnerable countries tackle climate change, creating a foundation for continued international cooperation. Conclusion While the UNFCCC has faced challenges in achieving rapid, binding commitments and funding adequacy, it has still made significant strides in building a cooperative global framework, increasing public awareness, and fostering support for technology transfer and adaptation efforts. The successes of initiatives like the Paris Agreement and the Clean Development Mechanism underscore the role of the UNFCCC as a critical driver for climate action, even as it works to overcome these limitations. By gathering countries worldwide under one framework, the UNFCCC aims to create a sustainable future where GHG emissions are stabilized, and global temperatures are controlled to prevent catastrophic climate consequences. COP remains a crucial vehicle for promoting, reviewing, and advancing international climate action, adapting to changing challenges while encouraging countries to strive toward a resilient and low-carbon future. COP 29 Note:— Market Mechanism 1:— Establishes a voluntary Carbon Market where countries can trade Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs), based on emission reductions surpassing NDC targets.- Supports sustainable development through voluntary bilateral agreements. Market Mechanism 2:— Creates an international Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM) to replace the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), allowing emissions trading by public and private sectors globally.- Includes “Overall Mitigation in Global Emissions (OMGE)” requirement for further reductions.

Category: UPSC Preliminary

UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

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