Foreign Invasions in Post-Mauryan India (2nd Century BCE onwards)

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, India’s north-western frontiers became politically unstable. This instability opened the gates for a series of foreign invasions. Historically, the north-west region of India (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) served as the main entry route for invaders from Central and West Asia.

Key Point:

Whenever there was political turmoil on India’s north-western border, foreign invasions occurred.

Among the earliest foreign rulers to invade this region were the Iranians (Achaemenid Empire under Darius I) and later Alexander the Great from Macedonia (Greek). But after the Mauryan period, four major foreign groups entered and settled parts of India:

1. Indo-Greeks (Yavanas or Bactrian Greeks)
2. Shakas (Scythians)
3. Parthians (Pahlavas)
4. Kushanas

Background of the Bactrian Greeks:

The Indo-Greek rulers originated from Bactria, a region located between the Hindukush mountains and the Amu Darya river, in present-day Afghanistan and Tajikistan.

• Bactria and Parthia were eastern provinces of the Seleucid Empire, which was one of the successor states of Alexander’s empire.
• Under the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II (261–246 BCE), governors of Bactria and Parthia rebelled and declared independence:
• Arsaces led the revolt in Parthia.
• Diodotus I declared Bactrian independence.

Later, the Bactrian kingdom was taken over by Euthydemus, who killed Diodotus’ successor and established his own rule.

Treaty with the Syrian King:

Treaty with the Syrian King:

• Around 206 BCE, Antiochus III, another Seleucid king, attempted to reconquer Bactria but eventually made peace with Euthydemus, recognizing him as an independent ruler.
• Greek historian Polybius records that Antiochus received 500 elephants from an Indian king Subhagasena during this expedition, showing early Indo-Greek diplomatic relations.

The Indo-Greek period is known from:

1. Indian Literature:

• Mahabharata: Mentions “Yavanas” as foreigners.
• Patanjali’s Mahabhashya: Says that the Yavanas had invaded regions like Saket (Ayodhya) and Madhyamika (near Chittorgarh).
• Malavikagnimitram (Kalidasa): Describes the victory of Vasumitra, a Shunga prince, over the Yavanas.
• Gargi Samhita – Yugapurana section: Describes the Indo-Greek advance to Pataliputra, although they did not stay due to internal disputes.

2. Greek Classical Writers:

• Polybius: Notes the treaty between Antiochus III and Euthydemus.
• Justin: Refers to Demetrius as the “King of the Indians”.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Mentions seeing Menander’s coins in Bharukachchha (modern Bharuch).

3. Inscriptions:

• Reh Inscription (Fatehpur, U.P.)
• Shiv-Garbha Inscription on a relic casket from Peshawar bearing Menander’s name.

4. Coins:

• Indo-Greek coins have been found across North-West, Western, and Central India.
• They are bilingual: Greek on one side and Prakrit/Brahmi or Kharosthi on the other.
• Many coins show the rulers’ portraits, Greek gods, and Indian symbols like wheel (chakra) and palm tree.

1. Demetrius I (First Indo-Greek Invader of India)

• Successor of Euthydemus.
• Invaded India around 180 BCE, during the time of Pushyamitra Shunga.
• He reached as far as Punjab and Sindh.
• His military campaign marked the beginning of Indo-Greek rule in India.
• Menander and Apollodotus, believed to be his commander and brother, supported him.

2. Eucratides

• Sent by Antiochus IV to challenge Demetrius.
• Captured Bactria and extended control to the Jhelum River.
• Later declared independence from the Seleucids.
• His dynasty is known as the *Eucratides Dynasty, ruling from Bactria to Jhelum, with Takshashila as capital.

3. Euthydemus Dynasty (in India)

• Ruled from Jhelum to Mathura.
• Capital was Sakala (modern-day Sialkot).
• Key ruler: Menander I (Milinda).

Menander I was one of the most prominent rulers of the Indo-Greek kingdom. Greek historians considered him a great conqueror. According to the ancient geographer Strabo, Menander expanded his empire even further than Alexander the Great. He played a vital role in the spread of Hellenistic culture in India and is also remembered in Buddhist literature as a wise and philosophical king.

• Reign: Around 155–130 BCE.
• Expanded territory deep into Ganga-Yamuna valley.
• Known for religious tolerance and patronage of Buddhism.
• Converted to Buddhism after dialogues with monk Nagasena, recorded in Milinda Panha (The Questions of King Milinda).
• His coins are the most widely found Indo-Greek coins in India.

Summary of Key Dynasties

Dynasty	Capital	Region Ruled	Notable Ruler
Eucratides	Takshashila	Bactria to Jhelum	Eucratides
Euthydemus	Sakala (Sialkot)	Jhelum to Mathura	Demetrius, Menander

Conquests and Territorial Expansion

• Menander crossed the Hyphasis River (modern Beas) and extended his control up to the Isamus River (identified with the Yamuna). This indicates that he conquered a large portion of north-western and central India.
• His capital city was Sagala, which has been identified with modern Sialkot in present-day Pakistan.

Evidence from Coins and Inscriptions

• Coins of Menander and his son Strato I have been discovered from Mathura, confirming that this region was under their control.
• Two pottery vessels bearing Menander’s name have been found in Swat and Bajaur regions, suggesting that his influence extended into modern-day northern Pakistan.
• A Dhatu-Garbha-Manjusha (relic casket) inscription from the 5th regnal year of Menander was discovered at Shivkot, further supporting his religious and administrative presence in that region.
• Some of his coins bear the image of a camel, which is interpreted by historians as an indication of his control over Rajputana (modern Rajasthan), particularly the ancient city of Madhyamika (near Chittorgarh).

Extent of Menander’s Empire

Based on archaeological and literary evidence, his empire included:

1. Kapisa (near modern Kabul)
2. Punjab
3. Sindh
4. Madhyamika (in Rajasthan)
5. Bharukachchha (modern Bharuch in Gujarat)
6. Bundelkhand
7. Mathura

Religious Titles and Coin Legends

Some of Menander’s coins carry titles and symbols that hint at his connection with Indian religious thought:

• Phrases such as “Dharmachakra”, “Dharmika” (righteous), and “Maharajadhiraja Menander” appear on various issues.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century CE Greek travel document, mentions that Menander’s coins were in circulation as far as Bharuch, suggesting continued influence and trade.

Milinda Panha (Questions of King Milinda)

• Menander is identified with “Milinda” in the famous Buddhist philosophical text “Milinda Panha” (“Questions of Milinda“).
• The text records a dialogue between King Milinda and the Buddhist monk Nagasena, where the king asks a series of deep philosophical questions about self, soul, rebirth, and liberation.
• Under Nagasena’s influence, Milinda is said to have accepted Buddhism and eventually renounced his throne, although historical consensus on whether he became a monk is lacking.

⚠️ Note: There is no conclusive archaeological or textual evidence to confirm that Menander formally converted or became a monk, but the Buddhist tradition holds this belief.

Legacy in Buddhist Texts and Art

• According to Kshemendra’s “Avadāna Kalpalatā“, Menander built several stupas to promote Buddhism.
• The Greek historian Plutarch mentions that after Menander’s death, many cities competed to claim his remains, and stupas (funerary mounds) were built in all those cities—similar to how the Buddha’s relics were divided and enshrined in eight stupas after his passing.

Motives Behind Religious Support

• Historian Tarn argued that Menander’s embrace of Buddhism might have had political motives, as the Buddhist population in his territory was quite large.
• In the Milinda Pañha, Menander is also described as a highly educated ruler, well-versed in Indian and Greek traditions—Vedas, Smritis, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, mathematics, and music.

Early Reign and Guardianship

• Menander was succeeded by Strato I, also known as Strato Soter (“the Savior”).
• Strato I was a minor at the time of succession, and he ruled jointly with his mother Agathocleia, who likely acted as regent.

Political Conflicts

• Strato I faced opposition from Heliocles, a ruler of the Eucratides dynasty (another Indo-Greek branch).
• Some of Strato’s territories were captured by Heliocles, as evidenced by coins that bear Heliocles’ name in regions previously controlled by Strato.

Joint Rule and Decline

• Toward the end of his reign, Strato I ruled jointly with his grandson, Strato II.
• The Euthydemus dynasty began to weaken during Strato I’s rule and declined further under Strato II.

Final Rulers and Collapse

• The last prominent ruler of the Euthydemus line in India was Hippostratus (sometimes spelled Hippotretus).
• He ruled over northwestern Punjab and Pushkalavati (modern Charsadda, Pakistan).
• During his time, Mathura was taken from the Yavanas (Greeks) by the rising Mitra dynasty.
• Other indigenous tribal kingdoms like the Kunindas and Arjunayanas also became independent.
• By around 30 BCE, the remaining Indo-Greek territories in eastern Punjab fell into the hands of the Shakas (Scythians).

Power Struggles in Bactria

• Eucratides I, a rival Indo-Greek king, overthrew the descendants of Demetrius and seized control of Bactria.
• His son, Heliocles, murdered him and became king in 155 BCE.
• During Heliocles’ reign, Bactria was overrun by the Shakas, ending Greek rule in that region.

Indian Campaigns

• After losing Bactria, Heliocles attempted to consolidate power in India.
• He captured regions between Paropamisadae (Kabul region) and the Jhelum River, likely from Strato I of the Euthydemus dynasty.

Cultural and Political Exchanges

• After Heliocles, Antialcidas became the Indo-Greek ruler of Takshashila (Taxila).
• He is most famous for sending Heliodorus as an ambassador to the court of Bhagabhadra, the 9th ruler of the Shunga dynasty, around the 14th year of his reign.

The Heliodorus Pillar

• Heliodorus erected the famous Heliodorus Pillar (also called the Garuda Pillar) at Besnagar near Vidisha (in modern Madhya Pradesh).
• The pillar bears an inscription stating Heliodorus was a devotee of Lord Vishnu, highlighting religious integration and diplomatic friendship between the Greeks and Indian kings.

End of the Eucratides Line

• After Antialcidas, the Eucratides dynasty declined rapidly.
• Their territories were eventually overtaken by the Parthians (Pahlavas).
• The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Hermes (or Hermias), who ruled over limited areas before the complete disappearance of Greek political power in India.

Menander I and his successors represent a unique phase of Indo-Greek cultural synthesis. Their coins, diplomatic missions, and religious activities show a complex interaction between Hellenistic and Indian civilizations. While their political dominance faded due to internal conflicts and external invasions (especially by Shakas and Parthians), their legacy in art, coinage, and religious thought continued to influence the Indian subcontinent.

The cultural contact between India and the Greeks, especially during and after the Indo-Greek (Indo-Yavana) invasions, led to the emergence of a unique civilization that blended the best elements of both traditions. This fusion is often referred to as “Hellenistic Civilization”, which resulted from the assimilation of classical Greek culture with local Indian traditions in fields such as religion, art, astronomy, science, literature, language, and coinage.

The Greeks (Yavanas), who settled in northwestern India, not only influenced Indian society but were themselves deeply influenced by Indian philosophy and religion. This mutual exchange created long-lasting impacts that helped shape the intellectual and cultural development of ancient India.

1. Religious and Philosophical Influence

Adoption of Indian Religions by Greeks

The influence of Indian religious thought on the Greeks was profound:

• Menander I (Milinda), a famous Indo-Greek king, embraced Buddhism after a philosophical dialogue with the monk Nagasena, as recorded in the Buddhist text Milindapanha (Questions of King Milinda).
• The Greek ambassador Heliodorus, sent by Antialcidas to the court of Shunga ruler Bhagabhadra, became a devotee of Bhagavatism (early Vaishnavism). Around 113 BCE, he erected the Garuda Pillar (Heliodorus Pillar) in Besnagar (Vidisha) in honour of Lord Vishnu. The pillar’s Brahmi inscription describes him as a Bhagavata, a follower of Vishnu.
• Another Greek official, Meridarch Theodorus, is believed to have adopted Buddhism and may have been associated with religious monuments in Gandhara.

These examples suggest that the adoption of Indian religions by Greek rulers and officials likely encouraged ordinary Greek settlers in India to adopt Indian religious practices as well.

2. Influence on Indian Coinage

The Greeks introduced significant changes to India’s currency system:

• Prior to Greek contact, Indian coins were mostly punch-marked, irregular in shape, and generally lacked inscriptions.
• The Indo-Greeks introduced the die-struck method (using engraved moulds), which made coins uniform, artistic, and inscribed with names and images.
• For the first time in India, coins bore portraits of kings—a practice inherited from Hellenistic traditions.
• Bilingual coins became common: inscriptions were often in Greek on one side and Kharosthi/Prakrit on the other. This was pioneered by rulers like Demetrius I and continued by successors.
• Strato II, another Indo-Greek ruler, even issued lead coins, indicating experimentation with different metals.
• The Greek word for coin, “drachma”, influenced the Indian word “dramma”, which appears in later Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions.

This Indo-Greek innovation laid the foundation for numismatic practices in India, influencing later dynasties like the Kushanas, Guptas, and even Satavahanas.

3. Influence on Indian Astronomy and Astrology

The Indo-Greeks significantly impacted Indian astronomy (Jyotisha) and astrology (Phalita Shastra):

• Of the five principal schools of Indian astrology—Pitamaha, Vashistha, Surya, Paulisa, and Romaka—the last two (Paulisa and Romaka) are believed to have Greek origins. “Romaka” literally means “Roman” or “Western”.
• Varahamihira, a 6th-century CE Indian astronomer, acknowledged Greek influence in his works. In his famous text “Bṛhat Samhitā”, he wrote:

“Although the Yavanas are considered Mlechchas (foreigners), they deserve respect, as they are well-versed in the science of astrology.”

• His other work, Hora Shastra, which deals with predictive astrology, is also believed to be influenced by Greek learning. The term “Hora” is derived from Greek “hora” (meaning ‘hour’ or time).
• Greek-derived terminology can be seen in Indian astrology—words like Kendra (center), Liptha (degree), Drekkana (one-third of a sign), etc.

Greek Contribution to Timekeeping and Calendars

• The concept of a fixed calendar era, calculation of time from a specific epoch, and division of the week into seven days were introduced to India through Greek and Babylonian contacts.
• The Yavana calendar became widespread and was adopted by many Indian dynasties for official and astronomical purposes.
• According to historian Tarn, India likely learned the use of calendar systems and chronological computation from the Greeks.

4. Impact on Indian Medicine

• The influence of Greek medicine in India was known through Hippocrates, a Greek physician considered the “father of medicine”.
• In comparison, ancient Indian texts like the Charaka Samhita and the Charaka Oath (ethical guidelines for physicians) have been seen as India’s equivalent to the Hippocratic Oath.
• This parallel suggests shared values in medical ethics and cross-cultural appreciation of health sciences.

5. Greek Influence on Indian Drama and Literature

• The term “Yavanika”, used for the curtain in Sanskrit drama (such as in Bharata’s Natyashastra), is believed to be derived from the Greek word “Ionike“, indicating Greek influence on stagecraft.
• Structural elements in Sanskrit plays, like the presence of jesters (Vidushaka), are compared with the Parasites of Greek comedy.
• Scholars have drawn parallels between Shudraka’s Sanskrit play “Mrichchhakatika” and New Attic Comedy of the Greeks—both exhibit realism, social themes, and comic elements.

6. Artistic Influence: Gandhara Art

• The most visible and lasting Greek contribution to Indian culture was in the field of art, particularly in the creation of Gandhara art.
• Gandhara art is a syncretic style, combining Greek realism and Indian symbolism, especially seen in the sculptures of Buddha with Greco-Roman features—wavy hair, draped robes, realistic anatomy, and facial expressions.
• This style flourished during the reign of Kanishka and was centered in regions like Taxila, Peshawar, and Swat.
• Gandhara art became a bridge between East and West and deeply influenced Buddhist iconography across Asia.

7. Linguistic Exchange and Trade Relations

• The cultural exchange also included linguistic borrowing:

1. From Greek to Indian languages: panel, ink, pen, book, tunnel, center, camp, hora, etc.
2. From Indian to Greek: bazaar (market), karpasa (cotton), sharkara (sugar), vaidurya (beryl or gem), etc.
3. This linguistic borrowing indicates deep economic and cultural interactions over centuries.

Trade and the “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea”

• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century CE Greek maritime manual, provides vital information about India’s trade with the Roman world.
• It mentions ports on the western coast of India (like Barygaza or Bharuch) and describes goods traded such as spices, pearls, textiles, and gemstones.
• This proves that Indo-Greek trade relations were well-established and extensive, connecting India with Egyptian, Roman, and Mediterranean markets.

Table Summary: Greek Contributions to Indian Civilization

Field	Greek Contribution / Influence	Impact on India
Religion	Menander embraced Buddhism; Heliodorus became a Bhagavata devotee	Popularization of Buddhism and Vaishnavism among Greeks; cultural integration
Philosophy	Milindapanho dialogues between Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena	Spread of Buddhist philosophy; Greek appreciation for Indian metaphysical thought
Coinage	Die-struck coins, portraits of rulers, inscriptions, bilingual coins, use of metal varieties	Standardization of Indian coinage; artistic coin design; numismatic record keeping
Astrology/Astronomy	Greek-origin schools (Paulisa, Romaka); terms like Hora, Kendra, Lipt, Drekkana; 7-day week	Integration into Indian jyotisha texts like Hora Shastra, Brihatsamhita; Varahamihira praised Greeks
Medicine	Hippocratic Oath as a precursor to Indian Charaka Oath	Ethical practices in Indian medicine; mutual respect for health systems
Drama and Theatre	Use of curtains (Yavanika); character similarities (Parasite ↔ Vidushaka)	Enrichment of Sanskrit drama; structural inspiration from Greek New Comedy
Art and Sculpture	Realistic art in Gandhara School during Kanishka’s rule	Depiction of Buddha in human form; Greco-Buddhist artistic legacy in Asia
Language	Exchange of words: ink, panel, hora ↔ bazaar, sugar, vaidurya	Shared vocabulary; linguistic influence reflected in trade and science
Trade	Greek author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes Indo-Roman trade routes and goods	Proof of maritime trade; connection between Indian ports and Roman-Egyptian markets
Calendar System	Fixed era, 7-day week, time calculation methods	Introduction of solar-based calendar and standardized timekeeping

The interaction between the Greeks and Indians was not limited to military campaigns. It blossomed into a rich cultural exchange that left a lasting legacy in Indian religion, philosophy, science, art, literature, and language. The Greeks learned from Indian spirituality, while Indians gained from Greek advancements in astronomy, medicine, theatre, numismatics, and sculpture.

This mutual enrichment laid the foundations for the Gandhara School, contributed to the development of Indian astrology, and enhanced global trade networks, proving that cultural conquests often outlast political empires.

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📝 UPSC Mains Questions (GS I – Indian Culture)

[Q1.] “The Indo-Greek interaction led to a deep cross-cultural exchange rather than a mere political conquest.” Examine. (250 words)

→ [Hint: Religion, art, astrology, coinage, drama, trade, etc.]

[Q2.] Discuss the contributions of the Indo-Greeks to the development of Indian numismatics, astrology, and art. (250 words)

[Q3.] Explain the significance of Gandhara art as a product of Indo-Greek cultural fusion. How did it shape later Indian art traditions? (250 words)

[Q4.] Analyze how Greek influence contributed to the evolution of Indian drama and scientific thought. (250 words)

[Q5.] Evaluate the historical significance of the Heliodorus Pillar in the context of Indo-Greek cultural relations. (250 words)

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