Vedic Period: A Complete Overview

Vedic Period: A Complete Overview

The Vedic period is an important phase in ancient Indian history, named after the Vedas, the oldest religious texts of India. This period is mainly divided into two parts:

1. Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)

• This period is based on the Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas.
• The Aryans had just entered India and first settled in the Punjab and Afghanistan regions.
• The life of the people was mostly pastoral and rural, and they lived in villages.

2. Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

• During this time, Aryans moved eastward towards the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
• Settlements became more permanent and agricultural, and kingdoms started forming.
• The other three Vedas—Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda—were composed during this time.

Origin of the Aryans

• According to Max Müller, a famous German scholar, the original homeland of the Aryans was Central Asia.
• Other theories suggest places like Arctic Region, Tibet, or Europe, but Max Müller’s view is the most widely accepted.
• The civilization that the Aryans developed after settling in India is called the Vedic Civilization.

Nature of Vedic Civilization

• It was a rural civilization—centered around villages and cattle rearing.
• The main language of the Aryans was Sanskrit, which was used for prayers, hymns, and rituals.

Administrative Divisions (from smallest to largest):

1. Kul – Family unit
2. Gram – Village
3. Vish – Group of villages
4. Jan – Tribe
5. Rashtra – Kingdom or nation (evolved during the later Vedic period)

Important Officials:

• Gramini – Head of the village
• Vishpati – Leader of the Vish
• Rajan – Chief or king of the Jan (tribe)
• Purohit (Priest) and Senani (Commander) were key officials.

Two Types of Priests:

• Vasishtha – Represented conservative (orthodox) ideas
• Vishwamitra – Supported progressive and liberal ideas

Ratnins (Council of Nobles):

• The king was advised by a council of Ratnins (important officials or nobles).
• Their number was generally twelve, including the king.
• Some known Ratnins: Suta (charioteer and bard), Rathakara (chariot-maker), Karmara (blacksmith).

Territorial Directions (based on Vedic terms):

Direction	Vedic Name
East	Prachi
West	Pratichi
North	Udichi
South	Avachi
Centre	Madhyadesha (Middle Country)

Other Important Terms:

• Durgapati – Head of the fort or defense
• Spash – Spy who monitored the activities of the people
• Vajapati – Officer in charge of pasture lands and responsible for capturing violent criminals

❗ Note: There is no mention of any judicial officer in the Rigveda. Justice was likely delivered through customs and decisions by the Sabha and king.

There were two main institutions that advised the king:

1. Sabha

• A council of noble, elder, and learned people.
• Played a role in decision-making and discussions.

2. Samiti

• Represented the common people.
• Participated in selecting or approving the king.
• The President of both Sabha and Samiti was called Ishan.
• Women were allowed to participate in both these assemblies during the early Vedic period.

• The king led his tribe in battles.
• The word for war was “Gavishti”, which literally means “search for cows”, indicating that many wars were fought over cattle.

The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha)

• Described in the 7th Mandala of the Rigveda.
• Fought on the banks of the Parushni River (now known as Ravi).
• It was a battle between King Sudas of the Bharata tribe and ten other tribes.
• Sudas emerged victorious.

Vedic Society and Social Division

• Vedic society was patriarchal (male-dominated).
• The basic unit of society was the family, headed by the father, known as Kulapa.
• The society was divided into four varnas (classes) based on profession:

Varnas	Origin (from Purusha)	Function
Brahmins	Mouth	Priests and scholars
Kshatriyas	Arms	Warriors and rulers
Vaishyas	Thighs	Farmers, traders, and herders
Shudras	Feet	Servants and laborers

This classification is mentioned in the Purushasukta hymn of the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda.

• Women were respected and had freedom in the early Vedic period.
• They participated in yajnas (sacrificial rituals) with their husbands.
• Widows were allowed to remarry, especially with the younger brother of the deceased husband (a practice called Niyoga).
• Child marriage and purdah (veil) system were not prevalent.

Education and Scholars:

• Women received education and could become philosophers or poets.
• Famous learned women mentioned in the Rigveda include:

1. Lopamudra
2. Ghosha
3. Apala
4. Vishvavara
5. Sikata
6. Women who remained unmarried throughout life were known as Amaaj.

Main Food and Drinks:

• Barley and wheat were the staple grains.
• Milk, ghee (clarified butter), curd, and honey were commonly used.
• Meat and fish were also consumed.
• The main drink was Somras, made from a special plant, often used in religious rituals.

Clothing:

• People wore three main types of clothes:

1. Vāsas – Lower garment (like a dhoti)
2. Adhivāsas – Upper garment (like a shawl or wrap)
3. Ushnīsha – Head covering or turban

• The innerwear was called Nivi.

• The four Vedas: Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda.
• Mahapuranas: There are 18 main Puranas that elaborate religious stories and legends.
• Upanishads: A total of 108, focusing on philosophy and spiritual knowledge.
• Vedangas: There are 6 Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas) that deal with grammar, phonetics, meter, astrology, rituals, and pronunciation.

Indian philosophy is divided into six major orthodox systems (known as Shad Darshanas) and one heterodox system like Charvaka. Each school had its own ideas about life, the universe, God, truth, and liberation.

Philosophical System	Founder / Main Philosopher	Focus / Subject	Explanation
Charvaka (Lokayata)	Charvaka	Materialism	Believed in direct perception (pratyaksha) only. Denied the existence of God, soul, heaven, and rebirth. Pleasure was considered the ultimate goal of life.
Purva Mimamsa	Jaimini (not “Gemini”)	Ritualism	Emphasized performance of Vedic rituals for dharma (duty). Did not focus on God or moksha. Believed that rituals alone lead to rewards.
Yoga	Patanjali	Meditation / Practice	A practical path for spiritual realization through control of body and mind. Focuses on ashtanga yoga (eightfold path) like yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, etc.
Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)	Badarayana / Vyasa	Metaphysics / Spirituality	Explains the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the path to moksha through Jnana (knowledge). Based on the Upanishads.
Sankhya	Kapila	Dualism / Cosmology	Describes the creation of the universe through *two eternal principles: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). Does not believe in God.
Vaisheshika	Kanada (also called Uluka)	Atomic theory	Believed everything is made up of atoms (anu). Explains reality using six categories (substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence).
Nyaya	Gautama	Logic and Justice	Focuses on logic, reasoning, and correct knowledge through four valid means (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony.

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Entertainment and Games

• The Aryans enjoyed music, singing, chariot racing, horse racing, and gambling.
• Music included vocal songs and instruments like veena and flute.
• Gambling was common and even mentioned in the Rigveda.

Main Occupations

• Animal husbandry (especially cattle rearing) and agriculture were the primary occupations.
• Cows were highly respected and considered sacred.
• Killing or injuring a cow was a serious crime, sometimes punishable by death or exile.

Other Economic Activities

• Trade and Barter System were common. There was no currency in the early Vedic period.
• A businessman or trader who traveled to far-off places was called a Pani.
• A person who lent money and took interest was called a Usurer (in Sanskrit: Kusidin).

Favourite Animal and God of Aryans

• The horse was considered the most important and loved animal. It was used in battles and sacrifices.
• The most worshipped god in the early Vedic period was Indra, the god of rain and war.

Religious Beliefs and Deities of the Vedic Period

Main Deities and Their Functions

Deity	Role / Function
Indra	Chief god in Rigveda. God of rain, thunder, and war. Leader of the Devas (gods).
Agni	God of fire. Mediator between humans and gods through yajnas (sacrifices).
Varuna	God of cosmic order, truth, and seas. Also symbolized justice and the creator of day/night.
Dyaus	Sky god, considered the father figure (Dyaus Pitar). Very ancient.
Soma	God of the Soma plant and associated with immortality and inspiration.
Ashwin	Twin gods, healers and removers of misfortunes.
Pushan	God of animals, roads, and safe travels.
Vishnu	Protector and nourisher of the world. Played a small role in Rigveda but gained importance later.
Maruts	Gods of storm and wind. Followers of Indra.
Prajapati	Became the chief deity in the Later Vedic Period, replacing Indra. Creator god.

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Sacred Rivers Mentioned in the Rigveda

The rivers played an important role in Aryan life. The ancient and modern names of rivers are:

Ancient Name	Modern Name
Saraswati	Possibly Ghaggar-Hakra (now dry, highly sacred in Rigveda)
Parushni	Ravi
Shatudri	Sutlej
Askini	Chenab
Vitasta	Jhelum
Kubha	Kabul
Sadanira	Gandak
Vipasha	Beas
Gomati	Gomal River
Krumu / Krumu	Kurram River
Drishadvati	Probably a tributary of Ghaggar
Sindhu	Indus (Most frequently mentioned river in Rigveda)
Ganga	Mentioned only once
Yamuna	Mentioned thrice

🌟 Saraswati is praised as the most sacred river in the Rigveda. It is linked with knowledge, purity, and divine inspiration.

Other Interesting Points

• The lowest social class or the least respected was referred to as Lohit (probably connected to the Shudras).
• The Vedic society practiced barter system, meaning goods were exchanged for other goods.
• No coins were in use during the early Vedic period.
• Pani was a term used for traders but also sometimes referred to enemies of the Aryans.

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The Post-Vedic or Later Vedic Period (roughly 1000 BCE – 600 BCE) saw many social, political, economic, and religious changes in Vedic society. It is also referred to as the Uttar Vedic Period.

1. Rajasuya Yajna (Royal Sacrifice)

• During the Post-Vedic period, a special ritual known as Rajasuya Yajna was performed during the coronation ceremony of a king.
• This ritual was meant to confirm and display the king’s authority and supremacy over other rulers.
• It included elaborate ceremonies and offerings to gods and involved participation of various tribes and allies to recognize the king’s sovereignty.

2. Change in the Caste System

• In the Rigvedic period, castes (varnas) were based mainly on profession or occupation.
• But in the Later Vedic period, caste (varna) started to be decided by birth rather than occupation.
• This marked the beginning of a more rigid and hereditary caste system in Indian society.
• The four varnas were:

1. Brahmins – Priests and scholars
2. Kshatriyas – Warriors and rulers
3. Vaishyas – Traders and farmers
4. Shudras – Servants and laborers

3. Agricultural Tools and Terms

• Plough was called Sira.
• The furrow (the line made by the plough) was called Sita.
• Agriculture became more advanced and iron tools began to be used.
• Forests were cleared to create more land for farming.

4. Economic System and Currency Units

• Although coins were not in proper circulation, currency units like Nishka and Shatamana were mentioned in texts.
• Nishka was originally a gold ornament or lump used for transactions.
• Shatamana means a value equal to 100 units (probably of grain or metal).
• However, no specific coins with fixed shape, weight, or value have been found from this period.
• Barter system (exchange of goods for goods) remained the main method of trade.

5. Philosophical Development – Sankhya Philosophy

• Sankhya is considered the oldest among the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy.
• It was founded by Sage Kapila.
• According to Sankhya, there are 25 basic principles (Tattvas), out of which the first is Prakriti (nature), which is the source of the material world.
• It explains the creation of the universe through the interaction of Purusha (pure consciousness) and Prakriti (nature).
• Sankhya is a dualistic philosophy that does not rely on God but explains liberation through knowledge.

6. Satyameva Jayate – From Mundaka Upanishad

• The phrase “Satyameva Jayate“ means “Truth alone triumphs“.
• It is taken from the Mundaka Upanishad, one of the principal Upanishads.
• This powerful phrase was later adopted as the national motto of India.
• In the same Upanishad, the Yajna (sacrifice) performed without knowledge and inner understanding is compared to a broken boat, which cannot help one cross the ocean of life (samsara).

7. Gayatri Mantra and Sage Vishwamitra

• The Gayatri Mantra is one of the most important mantras in the Vedas.
• It is found in the Rigveda and is dedicated to the deity Savitri, who is a solar god representing the divine light of the Sun.
• The mantra was composed by Sage Vishwamitra.
• It was believed that by chanting this mantra, people could develop spiritual strength and become more civilized and virtuous, like the Aryans.

8. Use of Baked Bricks in Urban Areas

• For the first time, baked bricks were used during the Later Vedic period for building houses and city structures.
• This development is especially seen in the city of Kaushambi, which was an important urban and trade center.

9. Indian Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata

• The two great Sanskrit epics of ancient India were composed in this period:

1. Ramayana, written by Valmiki, tells the story of Lord Rama, his exile, and his victory over Ravana.
2. Mahabharata, composed by Ved Vyasa, is the longest epic in the world and tells the story of the Kauravas and Pandavas, including the Bhagavad Gita.

• These epics became foundational texts of Indian culture, containing ethical, spiritual, and social lessons.

10. Origin of Gotra System

• The Gotra system came into existence during the post-Vedic period.
• Gotra refers to a clan or lineage traced through the male ancestors.
• It was used to identify family origin and prevent marriages within the same Gotra, to avoid inbreeding.
• Each Gotra was linked to a famous sage or rishi (like Bharadwaja, Kashyapa, etc.).

11. Brahmasutra – A Fundamental Text of Vedanta Philosophy

• The Brahmasutra is also called the Vedanta Sutra.
• It was composed by the philosopher Badarayana.
• This text forms the foundation of Vedanta philosophy, which focuses on understanding Brahman (the ultimate reality) and achieving moksha (liberation).
• The Brahmasutra systematizes the teachings of the Upanishads in a logical manner.

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