Indus Valley Civilization: Detailed Explanation
- The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also called Harappan Civilization, flourished approximately between 2400 BCE and 1700 BCE, as confirmed by Radiocarbon dating (C-14) and other modern methods.
- It was discovered in 1921 by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa, located in present-day Pakistan.
- This civilization is classified under the Protohistoric period, where the script existed but is still undeciphered, and also falls within the Bronze Age, due to the use of bronze tools and weapons.
- The main inhabitants were likely Dravidians and people of Mediterranean race.
- This was an urban civilization, with planned cities, advanced drainage, trade, and agriculture.
- The geographical spread of the civilization covers the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, including Pakistan and northwestern India.
| Direction | Site | Present Location | River |
|---|---|---|---|
| Westernmost | Sutkagendor | Baluchistan (Pakistan) | Dashk River |
| Easternmost | Alamgirpur | Meerut, Uttar Pradesh | Hindon River |
| Northernmost | Manda | Akhnoor, Jammu & Kashmir | Chenab River |
| Southernmost | Daimabad | Ahmednagar, Maharashtra | Godavari River |
Major Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization
Out of more than 1,500 Harappan sites discovered, six are considered major urban centers:
- Mohenjodaro
- Harappa
- Ganweriwala
- Dholavira
- Rakhigarhi
- Kalibangan
After independence, the maximum number of Harappan sites have been discovered in Gujarat, especially in Kutch and Saurashtra regions.
- Cities followed a grid pattern, with streets crossing at right angles.
- Drainage systems were well-planned; covered drains with soak pits were used.
- Houses were made of burnt bricks. Most opened into courtyards rather than roads.
- Only at Lothal, houses opened towards the main street.
- The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro is a significant public building, measuring 11.88 m x 7.01 m x 2.43 m.
- Granaries found at Mohenjodaro suggest surplus storage and state control over food.
- Lothal and Sutkagendor functioned as important ports.
- Foreign trade was well-developed, especially with Mesopotamia, referred to as Meluha in their texts.
| Item | Region |
|---|---|
| Copper | Khetri (Rajasthan), Oman |
| Silver | Baluchistan |
| Gold | Afghanistan, Iran |
| Tin | Karnataka, Iran, Afghanistan |
| Onyx | Afghanistan, Iran |
| Lapis Lazuli (Lajward) | Badakhshan, via Saurashtra |
| Lead | Iran |
- Bead-making factories were found in Lothal and Chanhudaro.
- Famous artifacts:
- Dancing Girl (bronze) – Mohenjodaro
- Pashupati Seal – Mohenjodaro (depicts a three-faced deity surrounded by animals; believed to be early form of Lord Shiva)
- One-horned unicorn seal – Most commonly found motif
- Terracotta toys and figurines show creativity and leisure activities.
- The script was pictographic or ideographic and remains undeciphered.
- Writing was done from right to left, and in longer inscriptions, lines alternated direction (called boustrophedon).
- Economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry, craft production, and trade.
- Main crops: Wheat and barley.
- Rice grains have been found in Lothal and Rangpur.
- First evidence of rice cultivation comes from Lothal.
- They also grew sesame, dates, and used honey for sweetness.
- Used two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts for transport, drawn by bullocks or buffaloes.
- Weight system followed binary or decimal multiples of 16.
- Worship of Mother Goddess (fertility symbol) was widespread.
- Pashupati Shiva, trees, snakes, and animals like humped bulls were revered.
- The swastika symbol, now a sacred Hindu emblem, was found on pottery and seals.
- No temples have been found, but fire altars (Agni Kund) discovered at Lothal and Kalibangan suggest fire worship.
- Society may have been matriarchal, based on many female figurines.
- Purdah system and possibly prostitution were practiced.
- People wore cotton and woolen clothes, used ornaments, and were fond of combs, mirrors, and cosmetics.
- Recreational activities included fishing, hunting, animal fights, playing dice, and Chaupar.
- They made black-painted red clay pottery, known for geometrical designs.
- Practiced both cremation and burial.
- Harappa:— Mostly burials
- Mohenjodaro:— Both burial and cremation
- Lothal & Kalibangan:— Double/paired burials
- No definite evidence of life after death or elaborate tombs.
- Causes of decline may include:—
- Repeated floods (especially in Mohenjodaro)
- Changes in river courses
- Decline in trade
- Climate change
- Invasion (though debated)
- Soil degradation and drought
| Site | River | State/Country | Excavator(s) | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Ravi | Punjab, Pakistan | Daya Ram Sahni & M.S. Vats | 1921 |
| Mohenjodaro | Indus | Sindh, Pakistan | R.D. Banerjee | 1922 |
| Chanhudaro | Indus | Sindh, Pakistan | Gopal Majumdar | 1931 |
| Kalibangan | Ghaggar | Rajasthan | B.B. Lal, B.K. Thapar | 1953 |
| Kot Diji | Indus | Sindh, Pakistan | Fazal Ahmad | 1953 |
| Rangpur | Madar | Gujarat | Rangnath Rao | 1953-54 |
| Ropar | Sutlej | Punjab | Y.D. Sharma | 1953-56 |
| Lothal | Bhogavo | Gujarat | Rangnath Rao | 1955 & 1962 |
| Alamgirpur | Hindon | Uttar Pradesh | Y.D. Sharma | 1958 |
| Sutkagendor | Dashk | Baluchistan, Pakistan | George Dales | 1962 |
| Banawali | Rangoi | Haryana | R.S. Bisht | 1974 |
| Dholavira | Seasonal stream | Gujarat (Kutch) | R.S. Bisht | 1990-91 |
- Sir Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the civilization declined due to Aryan invasion, though this theory is not widely accepted now.
- Piggot called Harappa and Mohenjodaro the twin capitals of a great empire.
- Kalibangan is the only site where the lower town was also fortified.
- Terracotta refers to objects made of baked clay.
- The word “Harappa” is often used synonymously for the entire civilization.
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